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Table 1 Framework analysis of cognitive constructs (positive and negative) of social capital in pregnancy

From: Social capital and health during pregnancy; an in-depth exploration from rural Sri Lanka

Social capital construct

Definition

Descriptors

Level & type of social capital

Selected verbatim from diaries

Selected verbatim from PHM/CD interviews

Domestic cohesion (husband)a

The emotional bonding that family members have towards one another and the degree of individual autonomy an individual experience in the family system (Oslon et al. 1979 [53])

Feel happy when the husband is around

Individual Bonding

“My husband was at home today. I love it so much when my husband is around. It is the best of satisfaction I could imagine.” Me04

“Most husbands are not at home. They work outside the village and visit home around once a month. When they are at home, they are very helpful to mothers.” Me Community Dweller (CD)

  

Being cared by the husband

Individual Bonding

“My husband take care of me now more than previously. He bought me a garden hose, as it was difficult for me to water the garden. He fixed it and I was very happy.” Mi 02

“Husbands are very concerned about their wives during pregnancy. Sometimes they call us even in the night asking for advise on their wives symptoms.” NPE PHM

  

Husband is providing care when ill

Individual

Bonding

“I felt ill at around 1.00 P.M So I couldn’t conduct evening class. My husband suggested that we should take treatment. But I refused to go, as I’m pregnant and I shouldn’t take more drugs. He stayed closer to me & looked after me with kindness. I got the feeling that his kindness cured me.” GA01

Husband pay lot of attention on health of the wife during pregnancy. They are very supportive. When we visit the house, it is the husband that prepares and offers us refreshments while we are talking to the mother. GA PHM

  

Express love to husband

Individual

Bonding

“When my husband is at home, I never feel alone. He is like a god to me. I feel that I’m the most fortunate wife in the world!” R04

 
  

Disharmony and conflicts with husband

Individual

“My husband came home and asked me for money. I asked why? He told that it is to get liquor. I was very angry and scolded him. He got angry too and slept. I felt very sad as to why he does this to us while we are struggling to overcome our problem.” V02

“Most of the husbands in this community do security jobs out of town. Therefore the relationship between the husband and the wife is poor. The love and care received by the females during pregnancy is low in this community. It is very difficult to get the husband to attend an antenatal session or a monthly weighing program of a child.” V PHM

Domestic cohesion (Family)a

 

Trust towards in-laws

Domestic

Bonding

My mother-in-law is very kind. She will not react even when we do something unreasonable for her. Such a good person she is! Better than my own mother. My Father in-law is the same. My sister in-laws never let my husband scold my children or me. In such situations they confront him. P01

Most of the time mother-in-laws take care of pregnant daughter-in-law as their own daughter. Conflicts are seen rarely when the daughter-in-law comes from an area with relatively higher socio-economic facilities is resistant to adjusting to this community.

P PHM

  

Family members spend time talking together

Domestic

Bonding

“Evening was joyful. We were all sitting in the veranda and were teasing my sister-in- law. All of us were laughing. I forget my ailments when she says funny things..” NPC01

 
  

Family members work together

Domestic

Bonding

“As today is Friday, I came home at around 11.00A.M. Then my mother-in-law, sister-in-law & myself prepared the lunch” GA01

 
  

Family members are concern of the arrival of newborn

Domestic Bonding

“Everybody in my house are awaiting for the great day! I’m very happy that my child is gifted with such a lovely family. The child is very lucky” NPC01

 
  

Feel cared at home when ill

Individual Bonding

“Today I had severe pain in my upper arm. My mother-in-law & sister-in-law did all household work. They applied medicines to my arm. They prepared food. I can’t forget their help.” GA 01

“This is a closely knit community. Usually the extended family live with the pregnant women and they take care of her.” GA PHM

  

Disharmony with in-laws

Domestic

Poor bonding

“Some of my husbands’ relatives are jealous of our love. I have no close relationship with my mother in-law. I talk what is necessary only. My mother-in-law’s marriage is not successful. Therefore they don’t like us to be happy.” R03

“There are problems with in-laws. There’s a generation gap. Pregnant daughters don’t want to listen to their mother-in-law. They say that she is old. Therefore there is disharmony in the family.” R PHM

  

Newborns arrival perceived as a burden

Domestic

Poor bonding

“When there are problems at home I feel angry all the time. It’s difficult for me to control my self. The main reason is my unborn child. My husband likes to have it, but not my elder children. They don’t like me becoming pregnant. It’s difficult for me to work. My whole freedom is gone. I have to do the whole stuff again.” V04

 

Neighborhood cohesiona

The tendency for a group to be in unity while working towards a goal or to satisfy the emotional needs of its members (Carron, A.V., Brawley, L.R. (2000).

Feel cared by the neighbors

Individual Bonding

“Every one in the neighborhood loves and cares about me.” NPC01

 
  

Like spending time with neighbors/ relatives/friends

Individual

Bonding

“After preparing the dinner I went to the next door aunts’ house as I felt lonely and then to a friends house as well. I was able to get rid of the boredom. I was relieved.” Me04

 
  

Tolerance of diversity of neighbors

Neighborhood

Bonding

“I also take another child in the neighborhood when I take my child to school in a three wheeler. This child always try to provoke by pulling up things of my soul daughter. I advised my child not to react. I’m happy that my child still loves this child despite her irritating behavior.” NPE01

 

Neighborhood trustc

Belief in the honesty, integrity and reliability of neighbors (Taylor P., Funk C. 2010)

Perceive neighborhood as a favorable place to adopt the child

Neighborhood

Bonding

“I feel that this neighborhood is the best to bring up my child. When people around are generous my child will see it and hear good things always” NPC01

 

Neighborhood mistrustc

Have doubt or suspicion of neighbors

Refrain from visiting or talking to neighbors (mistrust)

Neighborhood

Lack of bonding

“Although I feel alone at home, I don’t have the habit of going around to neighboring houses and spending time talking to them. Most of the people are relatives. But one should be careful of speaking to them. They utter slander. Nonrelated people help me more than my relatives.” R04

“When there’s a problem mothers come and tell us. They don’t want other people to hear it. They can get others support if they do so. But it does not happen here. There is some what mistrust in the neighborhood.”

R PHNS

Reciprocitya

Actions that are contingent on rewarding reactions from others and that cease when these expected reactions are not forthcoming. (Balu P.M. 1964)

Neighbors help each other

Neighborhood Bonding

“My husband has gone for a course in “Ampara” district (Far away from this village). His family is not happy with me. I only have my neighbors to share my joy and sorrow. Therefore I keep in harmony with all my neighbors. They help me a lot. Today they brought me lunch” V01

 

Informal social controlc

Reactions of individuals and groups that brings about conformity to norms and laws. (Coklin J 2007)

People in the community give priority for pregnant women

Community

Bonding& bridging

“I went to meet the village leader today. I didn’t have to wait in the queue, as I’m pregnant. Work get done easily” NPC02

Usually when women become pregnant the villagers take care of her. They often offer food to a pregnant woman when they prepare a special meal. Even at social gatherings people give priority to pregnant women. V PHM

  

Concerned about other people

Community

Bridging

“I was asked to play the organ at the chapel but I told that I will do it next week as it will hurt feelings of the child who came to play it today” NPE02

“When my neighboring aunt was admitted to hospital, everyone in the village went to see her.” NPC01

 

Sense of belongingb

Feeling of acceptance as a member of a group (Yosephine E. 2014)

Receive complements on birthday

Individual

Bonding

“Today is my birthday! My husband, family members and relatives wished me good luck.” NPC01

 
  

Being known by the villagers

Individual

Bridging

“I have a fair reputation in the village. I’m an outsider and many do not know me. But all of them know my husband.” NPC01

 

Lonelinessb

Distressing feeling that occurs when ones social relationships are perceived as being less satisfied than what is desired. (Cacioppo J. T.,,Hawkley L. C. 2012)

Feel lonely at home

Individual

“Today was a very bad day for me. Nobody visited us and we didn’t go anywhere. My mother-in-law and myself stayed home alone. I was very lonely” NPC 03

 
  

Misses own family/relatives

Individual

Lack of bonding

“I came home from the clinic around 12.00 pm. I was so tired and unwell. At that time I remembered my own mother. If I was with her she will take care of me very well. I’m staying with my in-laws. I don’t receive the love and care that I would have received if Iwas with my mother.” R03

 

Social supporta

System of formal and informal relationships through which individuals receive emotional support, material or information to cope with stressful emotional situations (Caplang G. 1974)

Have support on household chores (instrumental support)

Individual

“I came home around 11.30 A.M from the nursery. I felt tired. My mother-in-law and sister-in-law had finished preparing lunch by that time. So I was able to have a nap. As I’m pregnant most of the time they do the household work.” GA01

 
  

Have a close person to share feelings (emotional support)

Individual

“A very close person to me visited our place today. It was a great pleasure to see her. She is an aunt whom I share my joy and misery with. She has brought dinner for me too” NPC02

 
  

Have a person to provide financial support when needed (Instrumental support)

Individual

“Although I felt reduced fetal movements, we did not have money to see a specialist doctor. But when I told this to my mother she gave me money which was a great relief” NPC06

 
  

No one to care when ill

(Lack of instrumental support)

Individual

“There’s no one to inform when I fell ill at night. Cannot call my husband either as he sleeps after the days work. At such times I grab my small one towards me and shut my eyes tight!” R04

 
  

No one to accompany in going out

Individual

Lack of bonding

“I had to go for the ultra sound scan today. My number was ten. So I asked my mother-in law to get ready for the bus leaving at 12.10 pm. She told that she couldn’t come today, as she has to go to her own daughters place. Then I went to see whether my relative neighbor aunt was available. But she was not at home. I made my mind to go alone. What else to do, its for my child’s sake..” V01

 
  

Lack of support on house hold chores (Lack of instrumental support)

Individual

I’m struggling to work on my own. At this stage, it is difficult for me to do anything. Therefore I keep thinking a lot every day. It is with lot of difficulty that I brought up my elder two. Because of this new child I won’t be able to help the other two with their school work. I have to look into everything in he family on my own. There is no one to help. If I were not pregnant I would have cultivated and obtained electricity for the house. V04

“It varies among families. Some times the husband thinks only of his satisfaction. Total responsibility on maintaining the family is given to the wife. But sometimes both work as one.” V CD

Social responsibility/ contributionc

An individuals obligation to act for the benefit of the society (Sreenivasulu 2013)

House hold responsibility

Individual

“I woke up in the early morning as I had to wake up my child for his studies. He has become very lazy. It was difficult to wake him up. I made tea and while helping his studies prepared the breakfast. At 6.45 am, I sent him to school because his schoolwork starts at 7.00 am. I have to feed him make his clothes and help him to get ready. Otherwise he will leave without having a breakfast.” V04

“There are two types of mothers. Some are like babies and husband and family provide everything for them. But some holds the total responsibility on household and adopting young ones.” V PHM

  

Take responsibility in religious activity in the neighborhood

Individual

The prize-giving of the drawing competition in the church went well. Although it interrupted teaching at the Sunday school, organizing it gave me satisfaction. NPE01

 
  

Responsibility in education of young

Individual

“In the evening I taught my younger sister.” ME04

 
  

Hold responsibility in village organizations

Individual

“I have developed more relationships in my second pregnancy than in my first pregnancy. Because I did 1 year diploma in women empowerment & after that with the help of PHM we started “mothers’ club”. I had several meetings with pregnant women not only our village, but also in our neighboring village with the help of PHM. We advised them regarding pregnancy. With that I was happy & I lost sadness, laziness & fear. Instead leadership & courage was with me.” GA03

 

Trust in institutionsa

How people perceive how well the institutions are operating (Miller 1974)

Health systems

Individual

“At around 9.00 am the PHM visited me. It was really good that she came. I had lot of things to ask her. She answered all of them with care. Then she examined me. She asked me whether I have any other discomfort. I trust her a lot!” Mi04

Mothers depend on us for all health activities. Even when the VOG asks to get a scan done, or admit to hospital or prescribe any drugs, the mothers ask us for advise and then proceed. NPC PHM

  

Education sources

Individual

My sons’ class teacher said that he is doing well. I was so proud. He is only three and a half years. I was very happy.

 
  

Religious organizations

 

“The priest in the temple is very well known to my in laws. They are members of the temple committee. We went and asked for special blessings (“varu pirith”) that are offered for pregnant women. The priest asked me to come to the temple to have these blessings. Usually every pregnant woman in this area receive this during pregnancy.” NPC02

 
  

Micro-credit organizations

 

“I usually don’t go for these committees. Husband goes. Three women have to get together to get money. Earlier we took from a different company. This time the other two people wanted to get money again therefore we joined as help.” NPC01

“Usually the primi mothers do not participate in micro credit committees. But when mothers become older, having 3–4 children, take part in these. They are the people who want to collect equipment to house. Usually when children are older they have free time and they join these committees. It’s like an epidemic in the village. Husbands are laborers if they cannot have daily work they are unable to pay. Therefore conflicts occur in the family. It’s a burden to the society.”

  

Police

 

“We went to town in the motorbike, my husband did not have license and we were not wearing helmets. The traffic police stopped us. But fortunately they let us go because I’m pregnant. I was so happy. Rarely that such good people exist in this community. It convinced me of the status given to a pregnant mother in this society.” R04

 
  1. aFrequently mentioned constructs
  2. bModerately mentioned constructs
  3. cConstructs that were mentioned rarely in the diaries