Characteristic | Relative risk (95% CI), p-value | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Overall, all sites | DRC | Zambia | Kenya | Guatemala | Belagavi | Nagpur | Pakistan | |
Maternal age (20–35) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 < 20 | 1.35 (1.30, 1.40), < .0001 | 1.84 (1.60, 2.10), < .0001 | 1.67 (1.49, 1.88), < .0001 | 2.31 (2.10, 2.55), < .0001 | 1.23 (1.17, 1.28), < .0001 | 1.33 (1.27, 1.39), < .0001 | 1.23 (1.11, 1.36), < .0001 | 1.40 (1.27, 1.54), < .0001 |
 > 35 | 1.00 (0.95, 1.05), 0.8649 | 1.24 (1.04, 1.49), 0.0177 | 0.98 (0.80, 1.21), 0.8748 | 0.71 (0.49, 1.02), 0.0655 | 1.01 (0.95, 1.07), 0.7819 | 1.53 (1.22, 1.91), 0.0002 | 1.35 (1.01, 1.79), 0.0392 | 0.82 (0.73, 0.91), 0.0002 |
Maternal education (University +) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 No formal education | 1.31 (1.23, 1.38), < .0001 | 4.56 (1.56, 13.33), 0.0056 | 0.76 (0.60, 0.95), 0.0158 | 1.21 (0.78, 1.86), 0.3961 | 1.16 (1.08, 1.25), < .0001 | 1.39 (1.24, 1.55), < .0001 | 1.11 (0.95, 1.30), 0.1952 | 1.31 (1.12, 1.53), 0.0009 |
 Primary/secondary | 1.21 (1.15, 1.27), < .0001 | 4.38 (1.49, 12.83), 0.0072 | 0.88 (0.76, 1.02), 0.0896 | 0.91 (0.74, 1.13), 0.4152 | 1.16 (1.08, 1.24), < .0001 | 1.21 (1.10, 1.33), < .0001 | 1.26 (1.16, 1.36), < .0001 | 1.11 (0.90, 1.36), 0.3342 |
Parity (1–2) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 0 | 1.38 (1.34,1.43), < .0001 | 1.86 (1.69,2.05), < .0001 | 1.57 (1.42,1.74), < .0001 | 2.23 (1.93,2.59), < .0001 | 1.26 (1.20,1.32), < .0001 | 1.41 (1.34, 1.50), < .0001 | 1.38 (1.32, 1.45), < .0001 | 1.23 (1.16, 1.31), < .0001 |
 > 2 | 0.90 (0.87, 0.93), < .0001 | 0.86 (0.79, 0.94), 0.0007 | 0.90 (0.83, 0.99), 0.0264 | 0.78 (0.67, 0.91), 0.0015 | 0.93 (0.87, 0.99), 0.0148 | 0.91 (0.85, 0.98), 0.0114 | 1.01 (0.86, 1.19), 0.8745 | 0.85 (0.80, 0.89), < .0001 |
Consumption of vitamins/calcium/iron | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 Not consumed | 1.18 (1.10, 1.27), < .0001 | 1.35 (1.11, 1.64), 0.0030 | 2.20 (0.99, 4.89), 0.0521 | 1.71 (1.14, 2.58), 0.0100 | 1.16 (0.98, 1.36), 0.0779 | 1.47 (1.34, 1.62), < .0001 | 0.81 (0.60, 1.10), 0.1811 | 1.10 (1.03, 1.17), 0.0027 |
Received tetanus toxoid immunization | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 Did not receive | 1.03 (0.97, 1.09), 0.3134 | 1.15 (0.90, 1.46), 0.2625 | 0.66 (0.48, 0.91), 0.0122 | 0.73 (0.52, 1.03), 0.0706 | 0.93 (0.87, 0.98), 0.0146 | 0.85 (0.53, 1.36), 0.5044 | 0.89 (0.61, 1.31), 0.5602 | 1.14 (1.07, 1.21), < .0001 |
Number of ANC visits (4+) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 0 | 1.36 (1.20, 1.55), < .0001 | 2.48 (1.83, 3.35), < .0001 | 6.45 (3.12, 13.33), < .0001 | 2.90 (2.00, 4.20), < .0001 | 1.20 (0.96, 1.50), 0.1003 | 1.26 (0.53, 2.98), 0.5976 | 0.65 (0.44, 0.95), 0.0277 | 1.25 (1.09, 1.44), 0.0015 |
 1–3 | 1.27 (1.22, 1.31), < .0001 | 1.88 (1.58, 2.25), < .0001 | 1.70 (1.39, 2.07), < .0001 | 1.48 (1.28, 1.70), < .0001 | 1.23 (1.18, 1.28), < .0001 | 1.33 (1.26, 1.41), < .0001 | 1.08 (1.00, 1.16), 0.0399 | 1.15 (1.08, 1.22), < .0001 |
No obstructive labor | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 Had obstructive labor | 0.85 (0.80, 0.92), < .0001 | 1.30 (1.05, 1.60), 0.0151 | 1.24 (0.85, 1.81), 0.2691 | 1.21 (0.85, 1.72), 0.2813 | 0.71 (0.60, 0.84), < .0001 | 0.90 (0.79, 1.02), 0.1106 | 0.82 (0.74, 0.91), 0.0002 | 0.88 (0.80, 0.96), 0.0042 |
No severe antepartum hemorrhage | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 Had severe antepartum hemorrhage | 2.82 (2.53, 3.15), < .0001 | 4.89 (3.63, 6.59), < .0001 | 6.56 (5.09, 8.45), < .0001 | 5.70 (3.93, 8.27), < .0001 | 3.63 (3.18, 4.14), < .0001 | 3.22 (2.74,3.80), < .0001 | 3.05 (2.43, 3.81), < .0001 | 1.89 (1.73, 2.07), < .0001 |
No severe postpartum hemorrhage | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 Had severe postpartum hemorrhage | 1.02 (0.93, 1.12), 0.6406 | 1.10 (0.79, 1.53), 0.5741 | 1.36 (0.94, 1.97), 0.1036 | 2.32 (1.36, 3.97), 0.0021 | 1.15 (0.95, 1.38), 0.1438 | 0.89 (0.79, 1.01), 0.0805 | 1.06 (0.70, 1.60), 0.7964 | 0.96 (0.86, 1.07), 0.4937 |
No hypertensive disorders | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 Had hypertensive disorders | 2.01 (1.88, 2.15), < .0001 | 1.72 (0.87, 3.40), 0.1185 | 3.52 (2.57, 4.82), < .0001 | 6.35 (3.84, 10.50), < .0001 | 1.99 (1.83, 2.16), < .0001 | 1.98 (1.86, 2.11), < .0001 | 1.93 (1.73, 2.14), < .0001 | 1.31 (1.16, 1.47), < .0001 |
No fetal malpresentation | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 Had fetal malpresentation | 1.45 (1.35, 1.56), < .0001 | 2.43 (1.44, 4.08), 0.0008 | 2.25 (1.49, 3.39), 0.0001 | 2.13 (1.02, 4.44), 0.0432 | 1.40 (1.25, 1.56), < .0001 | 1.38 (1.16, 1.63), 0.0002 | 1.28 (1.09, 1.49), 0.0022 | 1.41 (1.28, 1.56), < .0001 |
BMI, kg/m2 (18.5–24.9) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |  | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 < 18.5 | 1.30 (1.26, 1.34), < .0001 | 1.54 (1.44, 1.64), < .0001 | 1.45 (1.19, 1.76), 0.0002 | □ | 1.43 (1.22, 1.66), < .0001 | 1.22 (1.18, 1.26), < .0001 | 1.24 (1.18, 1.30), < .0001 | 1.36 (1.31, 1.42), < .0001 |
≥ 25.0 | 0.70 (0.67, 0.73), < .0001 | 0.68 (0.59, 0.78), < .0001 | 0.57 (0.51, 0.64), < .0001 | □ | 0.68 (0.65, 0.72), < .0001 | 0.80 (0.74, 0.87), < .0001 | 0.77 (0.69, 0.86) < .0001 | 0.70 (0.64, 0.76), < .0001 |
Hemoglobin (≥ 11 g/dL) | 1.0 |  |  |  |  | 1.0 | 1.0 |  |
 10.0–10.9 g/dL (mild) | 1.02 (0.98, 1.06), 0.2489 | ░ | ░ | ░ | ░ | 1.00 (0.96, 1.05), 0.9940 | 1.07 (1.01, 1.13), 0.0187 | ░ |
 < 10.0 g/dL (moderate/severe) | 1.12 (1.08, 1.17), < .0001 | ░ | ░ | ░ | ░ | 1.08 (1.03,1.14), 0.0035 | 1.20 (1.14, 1.26), < .0001 | ░ |
Sex of the baby (male) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 Female | 1.19 (1.17, 1.21), < .0001 | 1.24 (1.16, 1.31), < .0001 | 1.19 (1.09, 1.30), < .0001 | 1.15 (1.01, 1.31), 0.0296 | 1.24 (1.19, 1.28), < .0001 | 1.16 (1.11, 1.21), < .0001 | 1.20 (1.16, 1.24), < .0001 | 1.17 (1.12, 1.23), < .0001 |