Characteristic | Relative risk (95% CI), p-value | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Overall, all sites | DRC | Zambia | Kenya | Guatemala | Belagavi | Nagpur | Pakistan | |
Maternal age (20–35) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 < 20 | 1.41 (1.32, 1.49), < .0001 | 1.94 (1.61, 2.33), < .0001 | 1.68 (1.48, 1.90), < .0001 | 2.38 (2.08, 2.72), < .0001 | 1.32 (1.22, 1.42), < .0001 | 1.16 (1.06, 1.28), 0.0024 | 1.35 (1.11, 1.65), 0.0026 | 1.30 (1.15, 1.48), < .0001 |
 > 35 | 1.08 (1.00, 1.17), 0.0385 | 1.23 (1.02, 1.48), 0.0305 | 1.10 (0.89, 1.35), 0.3785 | 0.46 (0.19, 1.07), 0.0724 | 1.19 (1.05, 1.35), 0.0057 | 2.18 (1.48, 3.22), < .0001 | 1.35 (0.87, 2.10), 0.1758 | 0.91 (0.78, 1.07), 0.2510 |
Maternal education (University +) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 No formal education | 1.28 (1.18, 1.38), < .0001 |  | 0.67 (0.54, 0.83), 0.0002 | 0.95 (0.49, 1.82), 0.8741 | 1.08 (0.89, 1.30), 0.4399 | 1.26 (1.10, 1.45), 0.0008 | 1.32 (1.06, 1.65), 0.0140 | 1.25 (1.04, 1.50), 0.0165 |
 Primary/secondary | 1.13 (1.06, 1.21), 0.0002 |  | 0.78 (0.64, 0.96), 0.0201 | 0.93 (0.64, 1.35), 0.6876 | 1.11 (0.96, 1.27), 0.1620 | 0.98 (0.88, 1.08), 0.6455 | 1.39 (1.23, 1.57), < .0001 | 1.07 (0.87, 1.32), 0.5037 |
Parity (1–2) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 0 | 1.27 (1.21, 1.33), < .0001 | 1.95 (1.69, 2.25), < .0001 | 1.46 (1.36, 1.57), < .0001 | 2.14 (1.79, 2.57), < .0001 | 1.14 (1.03, 1.27), 0.0122 | 1.22 (1.08, 1.39), 0.0014 | 1.26 (1.16, 1.36), < .0001 | 1.12 (1.05, 1.20), 0.0010 |
 > 2 | 0.90 (0.86, 0.95), < .0001 | 0.92 (0.84, 1.01), 0.0822 | 0.90 (0.80, 1.03), 0.1159 | 0.69 (0.58, 0.82), < .0001 | 0.99 (0.87, 1.12), 0.8555 | 1.08 (0.99, 1.18), 0.0977 | 1.43 (1.03, 1.99), 0.0349 | 0.85 (0.79, 0.91), < .0001 |
Consumption of vitamins/calcium/iron | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 Not consumed | 1.30 (1.15, 1.47), < .0001 | 1.82 (1.44, 2.31), < .0001 | 2.94 (0.89, 9.77), 0.0783 | 1.90 (0.91, 3.95), 0.0875 | 1.22 (1.03, 1.45), 0.0227 | 2.17 (1.91, 2.46), < .0001 | 0.72 (0.29, 1.75), 0.4654 | 1.08 (1.01, 1.16), 0.0357 |
Received tetanus toxoid immunization | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 Did not receive | 1.13 (1.04, 1.23), 0.0030 | 1.39 (1.03, 1.86), 0.0294 | 0.67 (0.43, 1.05), 0.0806 | 0.75 (0.48, 1.16), 0.1939 | 0.92 (0.84, 1.01), 0.0664 | 0.57 (0.09, 3.54), 0.5503 | 1.15 (0.56, 2.39), 0.7008 | 1.23 (1.14, 1.33), < .0001 |
Number of ANC visits (4 +) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 0 | 1.88 (1.56, 2.27), < .0001 | 5.27 (3.76, 7.39), < .0001 | 15.00 (6.23, 36.10), < .0001 | 5.93 (4.06, 8.68), < .0001 | 1.29 (1.03, 1.60), 0.0257 | 3.14 (1.15, 8.54), 0.0252 | 0.35 (0.14, 0.87), 0.0234 | 1.32 (1.12, 1.55), 0.0007 |
 1–3 | 1.68 (1.55, 1.83), < .0001 | 3.17 (2.57, 3.91), < .0001 | 3.00 (2.22, 4.06), < .0001 | 2.62 (2.09, 3.29), < .0001 | 1.59 (1.47, 1.72), < .0001 | 2.13 (1.87, 2.44), < .0001 | 1.40 (1.12, 1.75), 0.0030 | 1.16 (1.09, 1.24), < .0001 |
No obstructive labor | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 Had obstructive labor | 0.78 (0.70, 0.87), < .0001 | 1.51 (1.20, 1.89), 0.0004 | 1.28 (0.84, 1.97), 0.2551 | 1.71 (1.19, 2.44), 0.0036 | 0.59 (0.43, 0.82), 0.0018 | 0.76 (0.59, 0.97), 0.0251 | 0.68 (0.56, 0.84), 0.0002 | 0.79 (0.71, 0.88), < .0001 |
No severe antepartum hemorrhage | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 Had severe antepartum hemorrhage | 5.18 (4.44, 6.04), < .0001 | 6.63 (5.04, 8.72), < .0001 | 10.24 (7.15, 14.66) < .0001 | 10.28 (6.29, 16.77), < .0001 | 8.52 (6.99, 10.40), < .0001 | 7.40 (6.22, 8.81), < .0001 | 8.00 (6.16, 10.38), < .0001 | 2.75 (2.44, 3.11), < .0001 |
No severe postpartum hemorrhage | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 Had severe postpartum hemorrhage | 1.22 (1.07, 1.40), 0.0035 | 1.10 (0.68, 1.77), 0.6996 | 1.67 (1.16, 2.42), 0.0062 | 3.42 (2.14, 5.46), < .0001 | 1.80 (1.31, 2.49), 0.0003 | 1.18 (0.97, 1.43), 0.0980 | 1.70 (0.90,3.20), 0.0996 | 0.96 (0.85,1.09), 0.5243 |
No hypertensive disorders | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 Had hypertensive disorders | 2.74 (2.48, 3.02), < .0001 | 2.64 (1.17, 5.96), 0.0193 | 4.54 (2.82, 7.31), < .0001 | 10.72 (5.60, 20.51), < .0001 | 2.84 (2.52, 3.19), < .0001 | 3.09 (2.77, 3.44), < .0001 | 3.18 (2.80, 3.61), < .0001 | 1.46 (1.25, 1.72), < .0001 |
No fetal malpresentation | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 Had fetal malpresentation | 1.74 (1.56, 1.93), < .0001 | 2.93 (1.68, 5.13), 0.0002 | 2.62 (1.58, 4.35), 0.0002 | 3.50 (1.90, 6.47), < .0001 | 1.80 (1.48, 2.19), < .0001 | 1.83 (1.42, 2.35), < .0001 | 1.17 (0.92, 1.50), 0.1985 | 1.57 (1.38, 1.78), < .0001 |
BMI, kg/m2 (18.5–24.9) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |  | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 < 18.5 | 1.33 (1.27, 1.39), < .0001 | 1.40 (1.28, 1.53), < .0001 | 1.39 (1.20, 1.62), < .0001 | □ | 1.42 (1.07, 1.88), 0.0139 | 1.26 (1.16, 1.38), < .0001 | 1.28 (1.15, 1.42), < .0001 | 1.40 (1.31, 1.50), < .0001 |
 ≥ 25.0 | 0.77 (0.72, 0.81), <.0001 | 0.68 (0.57, 0.80), < .0001 | 0.61 (0.54, 0.68), < .0001 | □ | 0.73 (0.66, 0.81), < .0001 | 1.12 (0.95, 1.33), 0.1603 | 0.82 (0.63, 1.07), 0.1503 | 0.76 (0.69, 0.84), < .0001 |
Hemoglobin (≥ 11 g/dL) | 1.0 |  |  |  |  | 1.0 | 1.0 |  |
 10.0–10.9 g/dL (mild) | 0.96 (0.87, 1.05), 0.3580 | ░ | ░ | ░ | ░ | 0.93 (0.82, 1.05), 0.2182 | 1.04 (0.89, 1.23), 0.6142 | ░ |
 < 10.0 g/dL (moderate/severe) | 1.12 (1.02, 1.23), 0.0137 | ░ | ░ | ░ | ░ | 1.08 (0.97, 1.21), 0.1754 | 1.25 (1.07, 1.46), 0.0046 | ░ |
Sex of the baby (MALE) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 Female | 1.01 (0.98, 1.04), 0.5527 | 1.18 (1.09, 1.28), < .0001 | 1.13 (1.08, 1.19), < .0001 | 1.00 (0.88, 1.13), 0.9487 | 0.94 (0.88, 0.99), 0.0236 | 0.86 (0.81, 0.92), < .0001 | 1.00 (0.94, 1.07), 0.9333 | 1.07 (1.01, 1.15), 0.0338 |