Table 5 Social determinants of access to quality PNC visits in Nepal, 2016 (N = 999)
Determinants | Categories | Frequency (N = 999) | % | p | PNC visit cOR (95% CI) | PNC visit aOR (95% CI) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Structural | ||||||
Wealth rank | Lower (40%) | 329 | 60.8 | 0.035 | 1.00 | |
Upper (60%) | 670 | 69.3 | 1.45 (1.03, 2.06)* | |||
Ethnicity | Disadvantaged | 615 | 64.0 | 0.110 | 1.00 | |
Advantaged | 384 | 70.5 | 1.35 (0.93, 1.94) | |||
Religion | Others | 145 | 66.4 | 0.990 | 1.00 | |
Hindu | 854 | 66.5 | 1.00 (0.65, 1.55) | |||
Occupation | Not working | 467 | 63.9 | 0.060 | 1.00 | |
Agriculture | 387 | 65.6 | 1.08 (0.77, 1.50) | |||
Working paid | 146 | 77.1 | 1.90 (1.09, 3.32)* | |||
Maternal education | Illiterate | 207 | 60.9 | 0.060 | 1.00 | |
Primary | 160 | 61.6 | 1.03 (0.64, 1.65) | |||
Secondary higher | 632 | 69.6 | 1.47 (0.99, 2.19) | |||
Decision-making | Yes | 354 | 68.9 | 0.342 | 1.18 (0.84, 1.66) | |
No | 645 | 65.2 | 1.00 | |||
Intermediary | ||||||
Language | Nepali | 484 | 68.1 | 0.008 | 0.80 (0.55, 1.18) | 0.65* (0.43, 0.99) |
Maithili | 147 | 56.1 | 0.48 (0.29, 0.80)** | 0.48 (0.22, 1.09) | ||
Bhojpuri | 90 | 55.4 | 0.46 (0.26, 0.84)* | 0.59 (0.29, 1.22) | ||
Others | 278 | 72.7 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
Residence | Urban | 611 | 67.3 | 0.597 | ||
Rural | 388 | 65.3 | 0.91 (0.65, 1.28) | |||
Province | One | 184 | 75.6 | 0.001 | 1.00 | |
Two | 196 | 53.9 | 0.38 (0.23, 0.63)*** | 0.73 (0.37, 1.46) | ||
Bagmati | 196 | 70.4 | 0.77 (0.41, 1.45) | 0.65 (0.34, 1.23) | ||
Gandaki | 105 | 76.0 | 1.03 (0.52, 2.01) | 0.92 (0.47, 1.81) | ||
Lumbini | 187 | 67.4 | 0.67 (0.41, 1.08) | 0.72 (0.44, 1.18) | ||
Karnali | 44 | 45.1 | 0.27 (0.15, 0.47)*** | 0.34 (0.18, 0.64)*** | ||
Sudurpaschim | 87 | 64.3 | 0.58 (0.36, 0.93)* | 0.56 (0.31, 0.99)* | ||
Region | Mountain | 60 | 72.5 | 0.019 | 1.05 (0.54, 2.05) | |
Hill | 434 | 71.5 | 1.00 | |||
Terai | 505 | 61.5 | 0.64(0.44, 0.91) * | |||
Maternal age (years) | 15–19 | 145 | 65.8 | 0.838 | 1.00 | |
20–34 | 813 | 66.4 | 1.03(0.69, 1.53) | |||
35+ | 41 | 71.0 | 1.27 (0.53, 3.02) | |||
Birth order | < 4 | 903 | 68.4 | 0.001 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
≥ 4 | 96 | 48.7 | 0.44 (0.27, 0.71)*** | 0.52 (0.29, 0.93)* | ||
Sex of child (index child) | Male | 563 | 67.3 | 0.631 | 1.00 | |
Female | 436 | 65.5 | 0.92 (0.67, 1.28) | |||
Access to bank account | No | 606 | 63.3 | 0.022 | 1.00 | |
Yes | 393 | 71.5 | 1.45 (1.05, 2.01)* | |||
Media exposure | Yes | 667 | 70.4 | 1.69 (1.21, 2.34)** | ||
No | 606 | 63.3 | 0.022 | 1.00 | ||
Last birth (index child) | Wanted | 816 | 66.0 | 1.00 | ||
Unwanted | 183 | 68.7 | 0.516 | 0.88 (0.61, 1.28) | ||
Distance to health facilities as a perceived problem | No problem | 468 | 70.6 | 0.037 | 1.00 | |
Problem | 531 | 62.9 | 0.71 (0.51, 0.98)* | |||
Health system | ||||||
Perceived problem not having female providers | No perceived problem | 349 | 73.8 | 0.002 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Perceived problem | 650 | 62.6 | 0.59 (0.42, 0.83)** | 0.67 (0.47, 0.96)* | ||
Awareness of health mothers’ group in the community | Yes | 364 | 65.6 | 0.701 | 0.94 (0.68, 1.29) | |
No | 635 | 67.0 | 1.00 | |||
C-section delivery | Yes | 165 | 86.9 | < 0.001 | 4.00 (2.30, 6.95)*** | 4.20 (2.29, 7.68)*** |
No | 834 | 62.4 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
Quality of 4+ ANC visits | Poor | 383 | 56.9 | < 0.001 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Optimal | 615 | 72.5 | 2.00 (1.45, 2.76)*** | 1.69 (1.18, 2.43)** | ||
Quality of ID | Poor | 541 | 64.0 | 0.111 | ||
Optimal | 457 | 69.4 | ||||