Table 1 Characteristics of participants, by provider and place of birth (n = 1771)

Maternal race

 Asian

41 (4.2)

12 (4.4)

31 (6.0)

< 0.001

 Black

88 (9.0)

50 (18.2)

129 (25.1)

 Latina/x

79 (8.1)

14 (5.1)

58 (11.3)

 Indigenous

31 (3.2)

8 (2.9)

11 (2.1)

 White

740 (75.6)

190 (69.3)

285 (55.4)

Number of previous births

 0

0

0

2 (0.4)

 < 0.001

 1

287 (28.4)

125 (44.5)

239 (45.4)

 2–3

575 (57.0)

138 (49.1)

233 (44.2)

 4 or more

147 (14.6)

18 (6.4)

53 (10.1)

Maternal age at last birth

 17–24

43 (4.5)

12 (4.5)

38 (7.8)

0.009

 25–30

307 (31.9)

88 (33)

156 (31.9)

 31–39

548 (56.9)

160 (59.9)

256 (52.4)

 40 + 

65 (6.7)

7 (2.6)

39 (8.0)

Born in U.S.

 Yes

875 (89.6)

252 (91.0)

443(89.9)

0.789

 No

102 (10.4)

25 (9.0)

50 (10.1)

Highest level of education

 Less than college degree

203 (21.1)

38 (13.9)

98 (20.2)

 < 0.001

 College or Associate degree

482 (50.1)

121 (44.2)

215 (44.2)

 Graduate degree or more

278 (28.9)

115 (42.0)

173 (35.6)

Main source of payment for maternity care

 Medicaid/CHIP

107 (10.9)

42 (15.1)

97 (19.4)

 < 0.001

 Private insurance

429 (43.9)

217 (77.8)

356 (71.3)

 Out of pocket

360 (36.8)

4 (1.4)

10 (2.0)

 Other

82 (8.4)

16 (5.7)

36 (7.2)

Total household income before taxes

 $0–19,999

57 (6.0)

5 (1.9)

27 (5.6)

0.059

 $20,000–49,999

214 (22.6)

55 (21.2)

106 (22.2)

 $50,000–99,999

344 (36.3)

85 (32.8)

164 (34.3)

 $100,000–159,999

192 (20.3)

74 (28.6)

116 (24.3)

 $160,000 or more

140 (14.8)

40 (15.4)

65 (13.6)

Elevated pregnancy risk

93 (9.2)

45 (16.0)

203 (38.3)

< 0.001

Social risk factors

 Primary care concerns

470 (46.6)

111 (39.5)

217 (40.9)

0.03

 Mental health/ substance use

468 (46.4)

132 (47.0)

263 (49.6)

0.475

 Financial and food concerns

446 (44.2)

104 (37.0)

227 (42.8)

0.098

 Housing concerns

71 (7.0)

13 (4.6)

55 (10.4)

0.008

 Safety concerns

202 (20.0)

44 (15.7)

114 (21.5)

0.132