Characteristic | Relative risk (95% CI), p-value | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Overall, all sites | DRC | Zambia | Kenya | Guatemala | Belagavi | Nagpur | Pakistan | |
Maternal age (20–35) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 < 20 | 1.31 (1.26,1.37), < .0001 | 1.45 (1.30, 1.63), < .0001 | 1.36 (1.28, 1.44), < .0001 | 1.51 (1.40, 1.62), < .0001 | 1.30 (1.22, 1.38), < .0001 | 1.09 (0.99, 1.20), 0.0880 | 1.25 (1.07, 1.47), 0.0061 | 1.05 (0.93, 1.20), 0.4115 |
 > 35 | 1.07 (1.02,1.12), 0.0078 | 1.08 (1.00, 1.18), 0.0636 | 1.13 (1.02, 1.25), 0.0196 | 1.05 (0.93, 1.19), 0.3893 | 1.13 (1.02, 1.24), 0.0151 | 2.22 (1.56, 3.16), < .0001 | 1.00 (0.68, 1.49), 0.9847 | 0.94 (0.86, 1.03), 0.1647 |
Maternal education (University+) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 No formal education | 1.32 (1.23,1.41), < .0001 | 2.30 (1.01, 5.25), 0.0474 | 1.77 (1.46, 2.14), < .0001 | 1.48 (1.04, 2.09), 0.0294 | 1.18 (0.97, 1.44), 0.0969 | 1.29 (1.11, 1.48), 0.0006 | 1.50 (1.27, 1.77), < .0001 | 1.13 (0.94, 1.35), 0.1895 |
 Primary/secondary | 1.17 (1.11,1.23), < .0001 | 2.20 (0.94, 5.14), 0.0684 | 1.57 (1.26, 1.95), < .0001 | 1.23 (1.08, 1.40), 0.0013 | 1.07 (0.91, 1.25), 0.4209 | 1.01 (0.92, 1.12), 0.7693 | 1.39 (1.27, 1.52), < .0001 | 1.01 (0.86, 1.18), 0.9492 |
Parity (1–2) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 0 | 1.12 (1.07, 1.16), < .0001 | 1.49 (1.37, 1.62), < .0001 | 1.13 (1.05, 1.23), 0.0018 | 1.39 (1.25, 1.55), < .0001 | 1.00 (0.94, 1.06), 0.9133 | 1.10 (0.98, 1.24), 0.0944 | 1.05 (0.98, 1.12), 0.1429 | 0.98 (0.92, 1.05), 0.5708 |
 > 2 | 0.93 (0.89, 0.97), 0.0002 | 0.95 (0.88, 1.02), 0.1329 | 0.95 (0.88, 1.03), 0.2046 | 1.11 (1.03, 1.19), 0.0045 | 0.94 (0.87, 1.02), 0.1227 | 1.07 (0.96, 1.19), 0.2446 | 1.31 (1.04, 1.65), 0.0243 | 0.87 (0.82, 0.92), < .0001 |
Consumption of vitamins/calcium/iron | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 Not consumed | 1.18 (1.11, 1.25), < .0001 | 1.33 (1.20, 1.47), < .0001 | 1.24 (0.59, 2.61), 0.5700 | 1.46 (1.07, 2.00), 0.0178 | 1.10 (0.98, 1.23), 0.1168 | 1.78 (1.53, 2.08), < .0001 | 1.29 (0.86, 1.93), 0.2139 | 1.06 (1.03, 1.10), 0.0006 |
Received tetanus toxoid immunization | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 Did not receive | 1.08 (1.02, 1.14), 0.0050 | 1.15 (0.99, 1.32), 0.0656 | 0.90 (0.75, 1.07), 0.2436 | 1.10 (0.96, 1.27), 0.1796 | 0.96 (0.88, 1.05), 0.3776 | 0.89 (0.30,2.64), 0.8286 | 1.39 (0.98,1.97), 0.0680 | 1.12 (1.07,1.18), < .0001 |
Number of ANC visits (4+) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 0 | 1.66 (1.46, 1.88), < .0001 | 2.42 (1.90, 3.07), < .0001 | 3.97 (1.61, 9.77), 0.0027 | 3.28 (2.58, 4.15), < .0001 | 1.17 (1.02, 1.34), 0.0217 | 2.33 (0.89, 6.14), 0.0856 | 0.42 (0.17, 1.03), 0.0590 | 1.30 (1.14, 1.47), < .0001 |
 1–3 | 1.65 (1.54, 1.78), < .0001 | 2.14 (1.85, 2.47), < .0001 | 2.48 (2.05, 3.00), < .0001 | 2.04 (1.85, 2.24), < .0001 | 1.52 (1.43, 1.63), < .0001 | 1.83 (1.61, 2.08), < .0001 | 1.30 (1.08, 1.56), 0.0050 | 1.16 (1.11, 1.21), < .0001 |
No obstructive labor | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 Had obstructive labor | 0.77 (0.72, 0.82), < .0001 | 0.88 (0.77, 1.00), 0.0417 | 0.97 (0.77, 1.20), 0.7559 | 0.82 (0.68, 0.99), 0.0405 | 0.67 (0.53, 0.83), 0.0004 | 0.80 (0.65, 0.97), 0.0255 | 0.70 (0.60, 0.81), < .0001 | 0.75 (0.68, 0.83),< .0001 |
No severe antepartum hemorrhage | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 Had severe antepartum hemorrhage | 2.81 (2.49, 3.18), < .0001 | 2.54 (1.94, 3.32),< .0001 | 2.89 (1.99, 4.21), < .0001 | 1.97 (1.50, 2.57), < .0001 | 4.66 (3.80, 5.72), < .0001 | 5.63 (4.80, 6.60), < .0001 | 5.19 (4.17, 6.45), < .0001 | 1.92 (1.76, 2.09), < .0001 |
No severe postpartum hemorrhage | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 Had severe postpartum hemorrhage | 0.93 (0.84, 1.02), 0.1369 | 0.91 (0.65, 1.27), 0.5680 | 1.01 (0.69, 1.47), 0.9742 | 1.11 (0.93, 1.34), 0.2493 | 1.24 (0.93, 1.67), 0.1460 | 0.96 (0.78, 1.18), 0.6729 | 1.52 (0.83, 2.77), 0.1721 | 0.81 (0.74, 0.89), < .0001 |
No hypertensive disorders | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 Had hypertensive disorders | 1.81 (1.68, 1.95), < .0001 | 2.12 (1.43, 3.15), 0.0002 | 1.79 (1.18, 2.72), 0.0062 | 1.95 (1.32, 2.87), 0.0008 | 1.95 (1.76, 2.17), < .0001 | 2.52 (2.30,2.77), < .0001 | 2.30 (2.05,2.57), < .0001 | 1.19 (1.05,1.35), 0.0075 |
No fetal malpresentation | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 Had fetal malpresentation | 1.35 (1.26, 1.45), < .0001 | 1.31 (0.81, 2.09), 0.2679 | 1.53 (1.20, 1.97), 0.0007 | 1.11 (0.81, 1.53), 0.5165 | 1.44 (1.28, 1.62), < .0001 | 1.65 (1.26,2.15), 0.0002 | 0.99 (0.81,1.22), 0.9594 | 1.34 (1.20,1.50), < .0001 |
BMI, kg/m2 (18.5–24.9) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |  | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 < 18.5 | 1.18 (1.15, 1.22), < .0001 | 1.20 (1.12, 1.28), < .0001 | 1.19 (1.03, 1.39), 0.0213 | □ | 1.22 (0.98, 1.53), 0.0779 | 1.26 (1.16, 1.37), < .0001 | 1.18 (1.10, 1.26), < .0001 | 1.18 (1.11, 1.25), < .0001 |
 ≥ 25.0 | 0.80 (0.77, 0.83), < .0001 | 0.73 (0.63, 0.84), < .0001 | 0.79 (0.73, 0.85), < .0001 | □ | 0.78 (0.73, 0.83), < .0001 | 1.14 (1.00, 1.29), 0.0529 | 0.82 (0.68, 0.98), 0.0336 | 0.78 (0.72, 0.85), < .0001 |
Hemoglobin (≥ 11 g/dL) | 1.0 |  |  |  |  | 1.0 | 1.0 |  |
 10.0–10.9 g/dL (mild) | 0.97 (0.90, 1.04), 0.3626 | ░ | ░ | ░ | ░ | 0.92 (0.82, 1.02), 0.1119 | 1.04 (0.97, 1.12), 0.2950 | ░ |
 < 10.0 g/dL (moderate/severe) | 1.10 (1.04, 1.17), 0.0013 | ░ | ░ | ░ | ░ | 1.04 (0.97, 1.12), 0.3015 | 1.20 (1.10, 1.30), < .0001 | ░ |
Sex of the baby (male) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
 Female | 1.03 (1.01, 1.06), 0.0055 | 1.14 (1.08, 1.20), < .0001 | 1.16 (1.11, 1.21), < .0001 | 1.10 (1.05, 1.15), < .0001 | 0.94 (0.92, 0.97), < .0001 | 0.87 (0.82, 0.92), < .0001 | 1.00 (0.95, 1.06), 0.9464 | 1.03 (1.00, 1.07), 0.0812 |