Table 1 Study variables and their measurements

Outcome variable

 Suboptimal birth spacing

In the survey dataset, this variable was recorded as the duration of the interval between the preceding and the most recent birth (in the number of months). For the analysis purpose, the variable was dichotomized based on the WHO recommendation using 33 months as a cut-off point. Thus, women with an interval of less than 33 months were considered to have “suboptimal birth spacing practice” (coded as “1”) and otherwise considered to have “optimal birth spacing practice” (coded as “0”) [1]

Independent variables

 Residence

Urban and Rural

 Perception of distance to health facility

Not a big problem and Big problem

 Current age

15–24, 25–34, and 35–49 year

 Age at marriage

 < 18 year and ≥ 18 year

 Nature of marriage

Monogamous and Polygamous

 Women’s education

No formal education, Primary education and Higher education

 Husband’s/partner’s education

No formal education, Primary education and Higher education

 Women’s working status

Unemployed and Employed

 Sex of household head

Male and Female

 Household wealth index

Poor, Middle, and Rich

 Media exposure

Media exposure was created using three variables (television, radio, and newspapers) that have three response options (i.e. not at all, less than once a week, and at least once a week). Thus, women who reported watching television or listening to the radio, or reading the newspaper less than once a week and at least once a week were considered as having media exposure and otherwise labeled as not having exposure to mass media

 Couple’s fertility preference

Women who reported that their husbands preferred to have the same number of children were regarded as having “concordant fertility preference”, while those whose partners desired to have less or more children than their desire were considered as having “discordant fertility preference”

 Decision on health care utilization

This variable was generated by using the variable “who usually decides on women’s health care” that have four responses (respondent alone, respondent and partner, partner alone, and someone else). Thus, women were considered to have been “participation” if they reported that the decision was made by themselves or jointly with their partner and otherwise regarded as “not having participation”

 Contraceptive use,

Yes and No

 Unmet need for family planning

Yes and No

 Birth order

 ≤ 3 and ≥ 4

 Ideal number of children

 ≤ 5 and ≥ 6

 History of pregnancy loss

Yes and No