The results were organised into three main themes to reflect on the key research questions: boys’ knowledge of menstruation, their source of knowledge and their attitudes towards menstruation and menstruating girls. Within these main themes, the following subthemes emerged: denial, misconceptions, curriculum gap, cues to acquire knowledge, loss of friendship / changing relationships, societal views, menstruation as a normal function, disease and isolation, and supporting girls. Interestingly, there were no differences in findings between the model school and the usual schools, however there were some differences in knowledge due to differences in the teaching of menstruation across the 3 states, which is indicated below where relevant.
Following introductions and warm-up, all focus group discussions began with a question exploring whether participants had heard of menstruation and what they understood it to be. The majority of boys denied all knowledge. For a minority this appeared to be true, although for many others it stemmed from reluctance to talk or embarrassment on this subject. This was evidenced across the groups by silence or self-conscious laughter when the moderator tried to initiate discussion. The following is an excerpt demonstrating boys’ reluctance to admit any knowledge:
‘Now, have you heard something called periods or menses? (M).
‘No’ (P2)
‘Have you not heard of that’? (M).
‘No’ (P4).
‘Do you not know anything about that’? (M).
‘We do not know’ (P6).
‘You told that you know’? (M).
‘I said no’ (P8).
‘You told no. okay. Do you know what menses is’? (M).
We do not know’ (P3) (All Tam S6).
Despite these strenuous denials, it emerged later in the discussion that these participants were taught about puberty and menstruation at school; with one pupil stating ‘It came as a lesson in the curriculum’ (P3 Tam S6).
Extent of knowledge
Boys’ knowledge, however rudimentary, became evident during the course of the discussions. Their knowledge comprised three different aspects; biological function, cultural rites and girls’ behaviour and appearance. Knowledge around the biological function of menstruation varied considerably across, and to some extent within the groups, regarding what boys comprehended about menstruation, ranging from just a vague perception that it involved blood, to full understanding of the reproductive cycle:
‘Bleeding occur, don’t know anything else’ (Px Chhat S1).
‘We only have heard that word, but don’t know the reason’ (Px Mah S9).
Frequently, their knowledge and understanding was commonly based on misconceptions as illustrated by the following:
‘Menstruation is sort of disease in which blood come out mouth. Girls feel giddiness and fall down anywhere’ (Px Chhat S11).
‘It comes once in one month. If their voice change, it is told that they have attended puberty. I think that it comes once in 15 days’ (Px Tam S21).
Boys in just one of the groups displayed a little more accurate knowledge and they reported being taught about it ‘in 8th standard’.
‘Eggs are formed to women till 50s but for men, sperms are formed till death’ (P3 Tam S2).
All boys appeared to be aware of various customs and taboos that restricted girls’ lives, even if they were not sure why such customs were adhered to, or that they were due to menstruation per se. Descriptions mostly included aspects of seclusion, the forbidding of worship, as well as not being allowed to touch people, animals or food. The following excerpt is typical of the knowledge displayed by participants.
‘They should not sit near us. They should not touch. We should not drink the same water which they drank. Their food we should not eat. They should not come to temple’ (Px Tam S2).
The third way in which boys demonstrated knowledge of menstruation was in their observations of girls in terms of their absence from school, their changed physical appearance and different demeanour during menses. The boys comments were negative, suggesting that they perceived girls suffered both physically and psychologically at this time. Girls were commonly described as getting ‘irritated’ or ‘angry’, and complaining of pain. Boys perceived girls were also unable to concentrate on studies and isolated themselves from friends and classmates.
‘She sits separately, which is indicative for menstruation’ (P3 Mah S3).
‘She looks lazy. Like she is suffering with fever’ (Px Chhat S11).
Some participants rather sadly described how girls’ behaviour towards them changed once they reached ‘maturity’ or ‘puberty’, suggesting the boys felt they had lost girls valued friendships.
‘Yes. They do not talk to us. They do not come near us. They do not ask us anything (P2 Tam S2).
‘She behaves different. She doesn’t come to close to us. If anyone goes close to her, she denies them’ (P11 Mah S3).
A couple of participants explained the reason for this behaviour was grounded in societal attitudes that frown on girls and boys associating with each other when they reached puberty.
‘Our opinion changes within ourselves that they have attended the puberty and if I talk to her, people think wrongly about us. So we distance ourselves’ (Px Tam S2).
Source of knowledge
Boys from four FGDs reported that they were taught about puberty and menstruation in school as part of the curriculum during 8th standard. This included the three schools in Tamil Nadu, where they were taught alongside the girls, one school in Chhattisgarh, but none of the schools in Maharashtra. However, few boys appeared to learn much from the curriculum or other school-based fora. This resulted in some complaints that there were not enough details provided and it was taught ‘lightly’. In the two FGDs conducted in Maharashtra boys reported that although part of the syllabus, puberty and menstruation were missed out altogether.
‘We did not hear in the school. We have one chapter in book, but we are not taught about it. ‘Life cycle’ is the name of chapter’ (Px Mah S3).
It was quite common for boys across all groups to ask the FGD moderator to tell them more about menstruation, as they were eager to learn so that they understood menstruation properly. This also included schools where it was taught within the curriculum. Thus the following question was typical:
‘Can to tell us how menstruation occurs?’ (Px_Chhat S11).
The general consensus was that both boys and girls should be given information about menstruation in school, with just a few individuals stating it was unnecessary. Although some boys stated a preference for being taught separately from the girls, others thought both gender should be taught together.
‘It is better to teach together. Then only, we can become aware of that’ (Px).
It is a bad thing. It should be taught separately. It is not required for boys’ (Px) (both Tam S21).
The little knowledge that boys had gleaned about menstruation appeared to be primarily from informal sources. Boys said they learned about menstruation mostly from picking up cues through observation of female behaviour, as the girls adhered to customs such as not going to the temple, or staying in seclusion. The other manner in which boys acquired knowledge was from overhearing private conversations between women or girls. Sometimes an event such as a girl having stains on her clothing from leakage at school, or being allowed to go home during school hours, also signalled menstruation. Occasionally boys said they were told something directly by their peers or family.
‘We heard it from women. But whenever we go near from them, they stop talking about it’ (Px Mah S3).
‘Yes, They immediately leave for home after taking permission from sir. They clean the floor and then go. In this way boys come to know’ (Px_Mah S9).
In a couple of FGDs boys considered this topic was not necessary for boys to know about. More commonly however, boys were of the opinion that menstruation should be discussed more openly in their society because it is a ‘normal’ thing.
Attitudes towards menstruation and girls who were menstruating
Few boys openly displayed a negative attitude, although a minority voiced the idea that menstruation is a ‘disease’ and believed it was right that girls should be isolated at this time.
‘I think menses spread dirt, uncleanness’ (P1 Chhat S11).
‘Transmission of MC [menstrual cycle, sic]….. As malaria spreads, so there is a chance it may also spread like it’ (Px Chhat S3).
‘What do you think about them staying outside the house for 3 days?’ (Mod).
‘We think it is good’ (Px) (Both Tam S2).
However, other boys disagreed with the seclusion and felt that girls should remain with their family at this time to be supported by them.
‘Sir, whatever is happening, is wrong in this regard because girls need their parents during their menstruation’ (Px).
‘Why do they need them?’ (Mod).
‘Because she feels weakness. As she sleeps outside the home, any family member should stay with her there’ (Px) (All Mah S9).
Boys across the FGDs mostly appeared keen to help their ‘sisters’ with their menstruation, some demonstrating a protective bond towards them. Many believed if girls could be open about their status it would be beneficial, by allowing them to share their problems and receive help if they should need it.
‘They can share, then only we will also come to know. Then only we can take them to hospital, take care of them and we can help them’ (Px Tam S2).
‘Girls should tell their problems without shying’. ‘Whatever is possible from our side, we will give that. It is not out of our capacity’ (Px Mah S9).
Removing the culture of secrecy surrounding menstruation was also suggested as a way forward to help change societal attitudes, making things easier for menstruating girls. Being ignorant about menstruation was deemed ‘harmful’.
‘Even if government does something, our orthodox traditions will not change. But it will change atmosphere in schools’ (Px Mah S9).
The attitude of wanting to help appeared to stem from boys’ perceptions that menstruating girls suffer, from pain, weakness, and isolation. This was observed in a number of the FGDs.
‘They do not play with boys. They sit quietly. They do not come out. They look sad’ (Px Tam S21).
One FGD probed further on whether boys teased girls who were menstruating, with boys strongly denying this.
‘It happens to all girls so they should not be teased. Nobody does this, nobody teases about this’ (Px Chhat S3).
Some boys identified issues girls were facing when they menstruate at school, and a couple of boys were critical of male teachers who they considered did not help support girls when they menstruate. One solution proffered by a few individuals was that schools should employ more female teachers who girls could more easily talk to.
‘They feel shy while talking to male teachers. So female teacher should be available in our school’ (Px Mah S3).
‘If anyone has serious problem then teachers don’t give much attention’ (P2).
‘ So how can we solve this problem?’ (Mod).
‘There should be one female teacher and doctor in school’ (Px).
‘ Girls can’t allow to work during menses. Senior teacher don’t give leave immediately even after students get serious’ (Px) (All Chhat S11).